As Marilyn Monroe stands over a subway grate, a breeze flips up the edge of her white halter dress. In that moment, an ordinary outfit becomes something extraordinary, etched in the American imagination and the closets of people across the globe. Now, fast-forward to a moment in Bollywood: Madhuri Dixit is spinning in a purple saree in “Hum Aapke Hain Koun,” a moment so impactful that retail guests, unable to locate that empathetic shade the following day, left stores with outfits of remorse. He also made everyone quiet on Halloween, as if they had tattooed a purple Joker suit on their forehead for the rest of their life.

Deepika Padukone wearing statement jewels in “Padmaavat” led to an ardent love of Mughal adornment to flow back into the lives of all people in India, and similarly to Aishwarya Rai Bachchan with her Cannes appearances and related anecdotes of every brand on the planet either combating over her, or more importantly, Indian women's image.

Such scenes remind us that cinema rarely confines itself to the screen. Every cinematic moment becomes a fertile ground for fashion fantasies, propelling viewers to reimagine themselves in the lead. Movie costumes have evolved far beyond mere clothing; they are cultural flashpoints, inspiring everyday looks and reinforcing new norms for what is beautiful, rebellious, casual, or glamorous.

Whether it's Lady Gaga shocking in a meat dress on the red carpet, Priyanka Chopra’s custom Ralph Lauren trench coat dress with an extended train at the Met Gala, or how K-pop idols do the schoolgirl style with a futuristic twist, the spectacle of film and celebrity is now the driving force of authority in fashion—no longer regarded as passive entertainment, contemporary cinema charts new fashion frontiers even more quickly than the runways. Each year, cinema's grip on global fashion tightens, with everything crossing borders almost instantaneously via social media channels.

In this article, the journey unfolds, charting how screen and scene have converged to determine the way we dress, celebrate, revolt, and dream. Cinema is not merely a reflection; it is the machine that constructs the future of fashion on the global level.

How It All Began: Cinema’s Role in Fashion’s Making
The relationship between film and fashion dates back almost as far as film itself, but it has intensified dramatically over the years. It was in the 1920s and ’30s, with the birth of Hollywood’s Golden Age, however, that costume houses emerged to provide stars with clothing manufactured by fashionable ateliers, both high-end (Adrian, Edith Head, Orry-Kelly) and low-priced. Actresses such as Greta Garbo and Marlene Dietrich introduced fashionable silhouettes to theatres, and audiences quickly copied the styles—numerous department stores sold the short bob and beaded frocks.

This is evidenced by iconic pieces of clothing, such as the flapper dress, which transcend just clothing to become symbols (of the jazz age, or of women’s liberation) of the zeitgeist for an entire decade (the 1920s). By the time film began to speak, the ability of cinema to create trends through its vast sartorial power was already established, and audiences were running to emulate what they saw on screen.

Meanwhile, in India, Bollywood movies have profoundly shaped the textile and jewellery markets. Every hit film translates to a boom in specific sari drapes, embroidery styles, or jewellery motifs. “Mughal-e-Azam” (1960) popularised Mughal-inspired jewellery and brocade saris in mainstream consciousness. When Meena Kumari sported classic silks, or Zeenat Aman wore bell-bottoms in “Hare Rama Hare Krishna,” market shelves and tailor shops responded immediately.

Costume became a means to wield soft power—spreading an idealised version of national identity through shawls, churidar-kurtas, and even the next generation of Indo-Western fusion. The churidar-kurta, popularised by Sadhana and the leather jackets worn by Amitabh Bachchan in the 1970s, made anonymity and rebellion fashionable.

In the West, actor James Dean made the leather jacket a symbol of youthful rebellion in "Rebel Without a Cause." At the same time, the era of oversized denim was seen in films like "Back to the Future" and transformed by hip-hop figures in music videos.

Fashion's reliance on film culture continued into the subsequent decades. Costume designers became noteworthy names in their own right, and their contributions could be seen shaping everything from the shape of sunglasses to the length of a hem. The collaboration of designers with filmmakers also strengthens the idea that the screen has become a testing ground for haute couture, luxury, and sartorially appropriate everyday style.

By the end of the 20th century, the impact of film on fashion was so significant that brands would build entire collections around upcoming films and significant cultural moments to boost retail sales and community engagement. Both Bollywood and Hollywood cultivated entire ecosystems where the costuming of cinema not only inspired retail, but dictated how generations self-identified with clothing.

In the realm of fashion, cinema served as both a stage and a laboratory, underscoring its role as the most potent and omnipresent fashion climate globally—a trendsetter with an impact that spanned from Los Angeles to Mumbai, Paris, and Seoul.

The Psychology of Why Films Dictate Style
Behind every trend spawned by the movies lies a complex web of psychology—one that explains why audiences worldwide turn to the silver screen for their sartorial cues. At its core, cinema is aspirational. Films offer carefully curated visions of life, love, rebellion, or extravagance, making the imaginary feel attainable through the tangible act of dressing up.

The phenomenon of aspirational dressing is compelling; for many, wearing a “movie look” can provide entrée into another world, or even another self. When audiences see fashion icons on-screen (Audrey Hepburn in “Breakfast at Tiffany's”, for example, or Deepika Padukone in “Padmaavat”), the focus is not simply about the garments, but rather about the possibility of elegance and grace, or power and agency that these costumes represent. The characters our audience sees, in a way, become lifestyle prototypes—prototypical wardrobes that serve as shorthand for personal transformation. In one sense, every viewer exists in the space of both performer and spectators—engaging in bits of cinematic fantasy each day.

Additionally, emotional imprinting from iconic scenes allows this bond to exist. An iconic costume (for example, Shah Rukh Khan’s scarf from "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" or Julia Roberts's red dress from "Pretty Woman") can become “solidified” in the collective memory of that society and take on connotations of romance, rebellion, or reinvention. *These* images transcend the film, when they point to an intention that can linger in our minds and subconsciously guide our purchasing decisions in addition to the small rituals of dressing daily.

Beyond magazines or runway shows, movie stars inspire trust because cinema weaves their fashion into compelling narratives. Audiences invest emotionally not just in clothes, but in stories where style signals character and destiny. Thus, on-screen wardrobes become far more influential than editorial shoots—they’re authenticated by story, emotion, and the stars who wear them.

Decade-by-Decade: How Cinema Shaped Global Fashion

1950s–1960s: Minimalism, Classicism, and Silk
The 1950s marked the beginning of an era characterised by sophisticated style in the West and East Asia. The black dress, plus pearls worn by Audrey Hepburn in "Breakfast at Tiffany's", sparked an appetite for simple style from all over the globe. The "Hepburn look" of elbow gloves, boat necklines, and cropped pants was an elegant rebellion against the ostentatious style of those who had come before, and it engaged a trend toward refined, classic silhouettes.

In India, Meena Kumari's portrayal of classic silks in films like "Pakeezah," which highlighted, among other looks, her draped silk saris and delicate jewellery, offered a renewed expression of subtle sophistication that has continued to influence designs presented in contemporary festive wear. The appeal was noticeable and immediate as fabric shops in Mumbai and Kolkata began to see an increase in pastel silk, and families continued to hold onto the same style of looks, often preserving the hand-me-downs for generations.

Cinema thus became a powerful force in mainstreaming both Western and Eastern ideals of grace, discipline, and subtlety. Whether you lent towards Hepburn’s tailored urbanity or Kumari’s poetic softness, what you wore became a declaration of allegiance to a celluloid ideal.

1970s: The Age of Rebellion and Disco
The 1970s shook up traditional codes. In Hollywood, disco exploded with high glamour and glitz—John Travolta's white suit in "Saturday Night Fever" or Diana Ross' slinky sparkles in "Mahogany" come to mind. These moments made polyester jumpsuits, sequined dresses, and platform shoes the unifying fashion of an entire generation of dancers and dreamers.

Amitabh Bachchan's "angry young man" character in films like "Zanjeer" brought leather jackets, sideburns, and bell-bottoms to the streets of India. Meanwhile, Zeenat Aman inspired a hippie chic craze in "Hare Rama Hare Krishna" through oversized sunglasses, paisley prints, and long, flowing dresses.

Globally, blaxploitation films like “Shaft” and “Foxy Brown” foregrounded bold Afro hairstyles, wide collars, and daring colours, championed as both fashion and political statements. These looks travelled the world, influencing hip-hop, funk, and even mainstream pop. Cinema in this period did more than mirror change—it accelerated it, using costume as the chief engine.

1980s: Go Bigger or Go Home
Few decades resonated more in its somewhat abrasive yet flamboyant energy than the 1980s. Both the film and fashion industries reflected and influenced a moment of excess in every way possible, from oversized shoulder pads to neon eyeshadow. "Working Girl" and "Dynasty" popularised power dressing, with women embracing the workplace in large, more structured blazers.

Big hair and vibrant colours became the identity, with films like "Desperately Seeking Susan" featuring (Madonna's lace, leather, and studs) and "Flashdance" featuring (leg warmers and ripped sweatshirts) creating aa new standard for fitness apparel and an eclectic mix of accessories and clothing as "normal" streetwear. Bollywood caught on too, with Sridevi's electric blue sari costume in "Mr India," and Mithun Chakraborty's disco fashion that echoed the West's fervour with India's own maximalist fashion. Every shot and frame was completely alive with colour and interest—film not only reflected a zeitgeist but served as a bellwether of the social climate.

1990s: The Age of Iconic TV–Film Crossover and Global Youth Culture
As the last decade of the 20th century approached, the media was increasingly becoming globalised, and the cultural influence of fashion moved more seamlessly than ever, from Western screen culture and cinema to Eastern screen culture and cinema. Audiences from Mumbai to Manhattan were enamoured with Rachel Green’s layered hair and fun miniskirts on “Friends,” while also enamoured with Shah Rukh Khan’s notable look as Rahul in “Kuch Kuch Hota Hai." Everything was synchronising. Plaid skirts and casual denim jackets appeared on the streets of India, as Bollywood’s use of colours, bangles, and scarves became a trend on campuses in other parts of the world.

Influence and style in one form of screen culture versus another, such as a film or a television show, marked the key looks of the decade in the collective memory of audiences. In the West, grunge culture, as seen in films like “Reality Bites” and “Clueless,” inspired a style characterised by flannel shirts, slip dresses, and the ubiquitous combat-style boots, such as those by Doc Martens.

In India, inspiration was drawn from Kajol’s simple tomboy chic and Aamir Khan and Shah Rukh Khan’s sporty jackets, prompting college-going aspirants to merge Indo-Western cool with the ease and comfort of garments made or bought at home. Fashion in the 1990s was now a dialogue as opposed to a monologue—the influence of screen culture was meeting audiences ready to explore ways they could embody anything and everything they saw.

Another force at play was the emergence of the “It" celebrity—someone whose off-duty looks (the so-called “airport looks” and casual paparazzi shots) were tracked almost as eagerly as their on-screen costumes. The line between reel and real began to blur, foreshadowing the total dominance of celebrity-driven style in the next millennium.

2000s: Y2K Chaos and the Era of Celebrity Fashion Branding
The glamour and frenzy of globalisation, technology, and the emergence of a new celebrity ecosystem characterised the 2000s. Film—particularly Bollywood musicals and Hollywood romantic comedies—has taken the lead in transforming stars into fashion brands and fashion into personal identity. The Bollywood blockbuster “Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham” (K3G) presented intricate family wardrobes, in which the appearances of SRK and Kajol wearing a plethora of designers would lead to demand for Monisha Jaising saris and Manish Malhotra lehengas every wedding season.

Whether it was Y2K aesthetics firmly established in “Legally Blonde,” “Mean Girls,” and “Dil Chahta Hai,” featuring pastel color palettes, low-rise jeans, and an obsession with logos, or the new cosmopolitan status of actresses like Kareena Kapoor and Preity Zinta that Indian youth wanted to emulate—social campus couture in “Main Hoon Na” narrative conventions, stylish in “Salaam Namaste,” competing with Britney Spears in crop metallic tops or Paris Hilton’s velour tracksuit in the West; slowly paparazzi candids turned into a new advertising mode for brands, following a year of hearing.

Celebrity culture exploded, fueled by tabloid media and early social networks. Stars like Jennifer Lopez, Beyoncé, and Priyanka Chopra began collaborating directly with brands, launching perfumes, clothing lines, and luxury editions—making fashion influence a two-way street between the screen, the red carpet, and the consumer marketplace.

2010s: The Superhero Boom, High-Street Replicates, and Global Red-Carpet Moments
As connected media proliferated, the iconic looks of the past decade quickly transferred from the screen to everyday fashion around the world. The Marvel Cinematic Universe not only shaped the look of the blockbuster, but superhero suits — as evidenced by Black Panther and Wonder Woman’s intricate suits — gave rise to formal lounge wear that did not beckon the gym. Films such as "La La Land" have sharply shifted viewers' everyday looks, from the colour-blocked dresses of Emma Stone to vintage-inspired silhouettes, which have become mini-trends in shopping malls and mass-market collections.

Bollywood adopted shifts, with Sonam Kapoor acting both on-screen and off-screen as a fashion critic, later transforming into roles that assigned characters and looks to the star. Major box office successes like "Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani" and "Gully Boy" ignited a surge in boho-chic kurtis, athleisure wear, and visits to street fashion shops, as aspirational buying among the urban young continued.

Significant moments on the red carpets became breaking news around the world. Aishwarya Rai Bachchan’s “Cinderella” ball gown at Cannes, Priyanka Chopra’s trench-coat dress at the Met Gala, and Deepika Padukone’s feathered outfits were shared everywhere, both within India and on international style pages—proving the Indian stardown had arrived on the fashion map, in addition to changing global attitudes towards Indian style.

2020s: The K-pop Wave, OTT Styling, and Barbiecore
Over the last ten years, movies and celebrity style have evolved faster than social media and an algorithmic shift. K-pop stars, like BTS and BLACKPINK, have amassed a near-cult following, and much of their gender-fluid style has impressed brands from Seoul to Paris. Looks featuring platform boots, pastel knits, plaid schoolgirl skirts, and neon hair quickly turn into sold-out online trends on TikTok or Instagram. At the same time, the rise of streaming platforms allowed shows to drive everything from athleisure to high-society ball gowns. One of the most widely viewed installation shows, “Squid Game”, will enable audiences across the globe to binge-watch and adopt new garments beyond the small screen; meanwhile, millions are currently binge-watching “Bridgerton”.

In India, where OTT platforms have made fashion and storytelling reflective of influencer culture, we are witnessing how style becomes both aspirational and relatable in various contexts. In "Darlings," Alia Bhatt wears a relatable yet aspirational wardrobe, while Ranveer Singh's public wardrobe pushes boundaries. Designers begin to rely not just on couture, but also mix in streetwear, vintage, and even a post-ironic “Barbiecore”—a pastel, hyper-feminine aesthetic that was sparked by a 2023 movie and rapidly picked up by influencers abroad.

Celebrities now exert their most substantial influence not only on the red carpet but wherever a smartphone camera might catch them—airport looks, casual gym attire, or even candid street style inform what millions wear, post, and purchase. Cinema, music videos, and social platforms have merged into one unstoppable fashion machine: global, fast, and increasingly individual.

How Costume Design Shapes Trends
The influence that cinema exerts in defining global fashions is inextricably linked to the craftsmanship of costumes. Costume designers do much more than just dress characters; they design visual identities for them, which convey narrative, emotion, and cultural context. Audiences then translate those narratives into everyday fashion. An analysis of five notable films, “Black Panther," "Devdas,” "Bajirao Mastani,” "Sex and the City,” "Gully Boy,” and "La La Land," reveals that costumes transcend films and become incubators of global fashion movements.

"Black Panther" (2018) channelled Afrofuturism, merging African elements with hybrid fabrics and armour forms to create new conversations about fashion language. Ruth E. Carter’s costumes caused a global celebration of African heritage in fashion when they reached beyond 'film' into 'fashion.' Beyond the runway, the aesthetic found a place within a casual streetwear vernacular, celebrating heavy textures, vibrant colours, and symbolic jewellery.

In Indian Cinema, noted filmmaker Sanjay Leela Bhansali’s "Devdas” and "Bajirao Mastani" revived an affinity for heirloom textiles and crafted objects of beauty. Hand-embroidery, strapless lehengas with vintage diamond and gold jewels, and intense brocades directly influenced designers and influenced the market for these elements. For many designers, films invigorated contemporary demand for these aesthetics, adding to the fact that many translate classical royal representations into modern wardrobes.

The cosmopolitan glamour displayed in “Sex and the City” films crystallised luxury branding as a cultural force. Patricia Field’s daring mix of high-end fashion with streetwise attitudes made brands like Manolo Blahnik and Fendi household names, positioning accessories and over-the-top outfits as essential identity markers for women, thus entrenching luxury fashion’s role in aspirational dressing worldwide.

Streetwear’s aspirational rise owes much to films like “Gully Boy,” where costume designer Niharika Khan rendered Mumbai’s street style iconic through clever layering and blending of athletic wear with traditional touches. This stylistic alchemy validated streetwear as a legitimate fashion voice, merging hip-hop culture with regional flair, influencing markets far beyond India’s borders.

Finally, "La La Land" employed colour-coded costumes to indicate the character's feelings and journey, inspiring fast fashion collections with the use of pastel colours, saturated primaries, and flowing shapes. Designers worldwide have adapted these colour palettes, clearly demonstrating how cinematic colour psychology influences consumer behaviour in real life.

These instances illustrate that costume designers are often overlooked during fashion's evolution, yet they are the ones who masterfully interlace narrative, culture, and aesthetics into garments that inspire millions. Their art makes film a vehicle for retail, not just in presenting fashion, but in establishing trends—from Afrofuturism's fantasy to the revival of Indian heritage and the democratisation of street style.

The Hype Machine: How Cinema Converts Costume Moments Into Global Style Waves
Cinema's influence on international fashion is both cultural and increasingly industrial in nature. Brands have learned to time their product launches or campaigns with the release of films, transforming cinema into a retail event. So when there is a lot of buzz before the release of a movie, whether that is a “Barbie” moment or “Rocky Aur Rani Kii Prem Kahaani” moment, it will often lead to timing of coordinated drops: limited edition clothing lines, capsule collections, or even jewellery items that take cues from the hype of the screen, with brands hoping to capitalize on momentary frenzy through immediate sales and social media attention.

Streaming services also radically change fashion cycles. By packaging full seasons of series into bingeable formats, shows like “Bridgerton” or “Squid Game” create immediate fashion cravings that can be felt worldwide, compressing inspiration and consumption into shorter time periods. The idea of speed requires brands to act quickly or be integrated into culture, thereby increasing the feedback loop between the consumer and the screen.

Stylists have emerged as pivotal tastemakers and new-age celebrities in their own right. Figures like Elizabeth Stewart (Hollywood) or Ami Patel (Bollywood) leverage their role to dictate red-carpet trends and moment-to-moment celebrity looks. Their Instagram profiles garner massive followings, and their choices can make or break a brand in an instant.

Another increasing trend involves collaborations. High-visibility collaborations, such as those between Barbie and Zara, are theme-based and appeal to multiple generations by leveraging nostalgia. New lines of jewellery are inspired by Bollywood films, such as “Rocky Aur Rani”, that allow fans to have a tangible part of a beloved story. Collaborations break down boundaries between entertainment, fashion, and commerce by creating immersive brand ecosystems that foster a seamless experience.

LA vs. Mumbai: A Tale of Two Red Carpets
Red carpet style is as much a performance as the films—yet the staging looks different in Los Angeles and Mumbai because the two cities embody contrasting cultural values and fashion philosophies.

Fashion Philosophies: LA promotes minimalist sophistication and statement-making designs—Sustainable silks, neoprene, and digital prints layer beautifully with a light, artisanal hand. Hollywood's ethos revolves around understated glamour, when not exploring highly conceptual and disruptive forms. For example, contrast Lupita Nyong'o's sleek Versace gown with Lady Gaga's meat dress—a wondering social commentary. In Mumbai, the culture combines maximalism and tradition, as Bollywood celebrities wear luxury-styled couture that reflects India's textile heritage—brace yourself for embroidery, zardosi, or handwoven silk.

Fabrics: Hollywood textiles are innovative, sometimes developed from sustainable materials, such as silks, neoprene, or digital prints. In contrast, Bollywood textiles are often exquisite, featuring embroideries (such as brocade, velvet, or organza) and jewelled tones, reflecting a craftsmanship associated with royalty.

Colour: In LA, the colour palette often spans the nude scale to black and electric blue, with variations in sets and monochromatic or pastel options that create designs through sculptural form. In comparison, Mumbai, as a city, reminds the viewer in every way of celebration through colour (red, purple, royal or gold).

Body Language and Posing: Bollywood stars pose with overt charisma, often blending traditional gestures (such as hands on the waist or a subtle Namaste) with confident flair, projecting warmth and grandeur. Hollywood frequently relies on minimalist, controlled poses—such as elongated necks and soft smiles—to convey sleek power and a sense of celebrity mystique.

Cultural Cues: Indian red carpets blend bling and craft, embracing bold jewellery and ornate ensembles as an homage to heritage and identity. Hollywood haute couture underscores innovation and global luxury branding, often limiting accessories to allow gowns to “breathe” on camera.

Bollywood actresses are becoming staple appearances at international events like Cannes and the Met Gala - whether it's Aishwarya Rai's breathtaking appearances or Priyanka Chopra's global presence - designers want them to wear their designs because of their extensive reach. This type of exchange is transforming the meaning of red carpet glamour on a global stage, while simultaneously promoting Indian couture onto new world stages.

The Social-Media Multiplier
The impact of film on fashion has been exponentially enhanced by social media, acting as a multiplier that takes styles from the screen to everyday casual wear and beyond. Instagram and TikTok now enable celebrity stylists and fans to share iconic looks from cinema or stars quickly, and have them replicated just as quickly. Stylists such as Law Roach in Hollywood or Ami Patel in Bollywood curate wardrobes for celebrities that can have hundreds of millions of all-time followers. What used to take weeks or months to reach public attention, red-carpet glam and styling have become social media magic, as they happen instantaneously on platforms all over the world. The visual impact of cinema, paired with its storytelling ability, can be exponentially more impactful online, particularly with fan-generated elements like Reels and TikTok tutorials that decode the "moment looks" for everyday life and usage.

Moreover, viral fan edits, inspired recreations, and even airport looks—the casual yet aspirational ensembles worn by celebrities travelling between events—have become cultural phenomena in their own right. These airport ensembles shape fashion as strongly as formal appearances, reinforcing cinema’s role in everyday style. Fans not only consume these styles but also actively engage with them, sharing and remixing fashion influences across global audiences, transforming cinematic wardrobes into a participatory and interactive experience.

Social media also speeds up the diffusion cycle of these ideas and styles, democratising fashion movements by eliminating previous gatekeepers, such as editorial magazines and fashion week runways. New celebrity-owned brands, such as Rihanna's Fenty and Bollywood star Deepika Padukone's The Label, bring the fantasy of cinema closer to the consumer's closet. Fashion movements emerge and surge to legions of followers within hours of a film or red carpet event, as they are directly influenced by influencers who wear a specific style, thereby extending immediate availability to millions.

Ultimately, cinema’s fashion impact no longer relies solely on what’s crafted in costume studios; it thrives through networks of social media sharing, fan devotion, and celebrity entrepreneurship, making the screen-to-wardrobe journey faster, more inclusive, and deeply interconnected.

The Takeaway
Cinema has a transformative capacity in global fashion that is more than anecdotal—it rewires the way societies approach style. From the vibrant, made-to-wear colours and crafts of Mumbai to the glamorous, star-studded parties of Los Angeles, cinematic fashion truly sets new stylistic paradigms. The theatrical spectacle of Bollywood and the stark precision of Hollywood collide to create a multidimensional narrative that fashionably expands and evolves. The cinematic flow now connects fashion instantaneously across continents, folding into itself adapted tradition and an anticipated future, all of which was inconceivable decades ago.

The future of cinematic fashion influence is boundless and decentralised. Seoul’s explosive street style, energised by the world’s K-pop idols, injects fresh vitality and playfulness into trends. Lagos emerges as a beacon of Afrofuturist fashion, pushing bold narratives that celebrate African identity and innovation. Tokyo’s cutting-edge street couture defies categorisation, merging traditional Japanese aesthetics with contemporary edge. Meanwhile, Mumbai’s own dynamic hybridity continues to blend classical textiles with modern sensibilities, inspiring global designers.

The globalisation of cinema's fashion cultures represents a transformative repositioning: the next wave of iconic fashion could emerge from anywhere, driven by local stories with universal resonance. Cinema is still the preeminent fashion factory—this endless processing machine of creativity, producing dreams, images, identities, and style icons, one frame at a time. It creates a trend while simultaneously rewiring the DNA of global fashion, and ultimately makes aesthetic, expressive, or stylistic encounters an iterative and collective process across frameworks.